Recent Advances in Dietary Sources, Health Benefits, Emerging Encapsulation Methods, Food Fortification, and New Sensor-Based Monitoring of Vitamin B 12 : A Critical Review

In this overview, the latest achievements in dietary origins, absorption mechanism, bioavailability assay, health advantages, cutting-edge encapsulation techniques, fortification approaches, and innovative highly sensitive sensor-based detection methods of vitamin B 12 (VB 12 ) were addressed. The cobalt-centered vitamin B is mainly found in animal products, posing challenges for strict vegetarians and vegans. Its bioavailability is highly influenced by intrinsic factor, absorption in the ileum, and liver reabsorption. VB 12 mainly contributes to blood cell synthesis, cognitive function, and cardiovascular health, and potentially reduces anemia and optic neuropathy. Microencapsulation techniques improve the stability and controlled release of VB 12 . Co-microencapsulation of VB 12 with other vitamins and bioactive compounds enhances bioavailability and controlled release, providing versatile initiatives for improving bio-functionality. Nanotechnology, including nanovesicles, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles can enhance the delivery, stability, and bioavailability of VB 12 in diverse applications, ranging from antimicrobial agents to skincare and oral insulin delivery. Staple food fortification with encapsulated and free VB 12 emerges as a prominent strategy to combat deficiency and promote nutritional value. Biosensing technologies, such as electrochemical and optical biosensors, offer rapid, portable, and sensitive VB 12 assessment. Carbon dot-based fluorescent nanosensors, nanocluster-based fluorescent probes, and electrochemical sensors show promise for precise detection, especially in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.